O'Brien

media type="file" key="kaitlyn intro_0001.wmv" width="300" height="300" **Study of Theorists**


 * [|Lev Vygotsky]**

Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 in a middle-class Jewish family. Vygotsky attended the University of Moscow where he studied many different subjects including sociology, linguistics, psychology and philosophy. Vygotsky ended up graduating with a Law degree in 1917. He didn’t begin his psychology work until 1924 when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow and teamed up with Alexander Luria and Alexei Leontiev. He explored the psychology of art and language development, but his main focus was centered on child development and education. He died in 1934 at the age of 38, but his works are still being discovered and explored today.
 * Background**

Vygotsky’s two major theories include the zone of proximal development and his sociocultural theory. Vygotsky theorized the zone of proximal development as being the difference between a person’s actual developmental level he/she establishes on his/her own and the potential development level that person can get to with the guidance of an adult of other peers. Children are considered to be in a comfort zone where they are able to do tasks on their own, but when they reach a frustration zone where they need help from a more skilled person this is where learning takes place. This is that zone where children are challenged. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory depicts that human development is from the active interaction between individuals and their society. He believes children learn from their parents and teachers growing up, but this can vary from one culture to the next. Vygotsky also believed society doesn’t just impact the people but people impact their society, too.
 * Theory**

Vygotsky’s theories can be applied in the classroom by the teacher acting as a good role model and being a positive influence on students. Students learn from teachers so teachers being a positive role model will shape students in a positive manner. Teachers can also apply Vygotsky’s theories in the classroom by designing appropriate situations such as projects or assignments for students that is beyond their own ability to accomplish the assignment but where support can be provided and it is in meaningful contexts. This will make students experience their frustration zone where they need help from an adult or other peers, and this will cause them to be in the zone of learning, too.
 * Classroom Application**

Erik Erikson was born on June 15, 1902 in Germany where he was raised by only his mother, for his father left before he was born, until she married Dr. Theodor Homberger. When Erikson found out for the first time Homberger was not his biological father he felt confused of who he really was. During school students made fun of him for being Nordic, and he was rejected in grammar school for his Jewish background. Because of this Erikson developed an interest for identity formation, and this continued to influence his work throughout his life. Erikson traveled through Europe and studied psychoanalysis with Anna Freud and earned a certificate from Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. He decided to then go to the United States in 1933 and taught at Harvard Medical School. After this position he also taught at the University of California at Berkeley, Yale, the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute, Austen Riggs Center, and the Center for Advanced Studies of the Behavioral Sciences.
 * [|Erik Erikson]**
 * Background**

Erik Erikson’s major theory he developed was the eight stages extending from birth to death that are part of his psychosocial theory of personal development. Each of Erikson’s stages is marked as a time in life when people go through a psychosocial issue or developmental crisis. In order for people to develop successfully they need to be successful with each stage or crisis they are experiencing. If they do people feel a sense of strength or ego identity. If people fail this stage then they will be negatively impacted in their personal development, but they may overcome these past conflicts after later stages in life. Erikson believes people are able to bounce back and forth between stages to eventually attempt to succeed each stage.
 * Theory **

Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages
 * Psychosocial Stage || Age || Basic Strength ||
 * Trust vs. Mistrust || Birth to 18 Months || Drive & Hope ||
 * Autonomy vs. Shame || 18 Months to 3 Years || Self-Control, Courage, and Will ||
 * Initiative vs. Guilt || 3 to 5 Years || Purpose ||
 * Industry vs. Inferiority || 6 to 12 Years || Method and Competence ||
 * Identity vs. Role Confusion || Adolescence || Devotion and Fidelity ||
 * Intimacy vs. Isolation || Young Adulthood || Affiliation and Love ||
 * Generativity vs. Stagnation || Middle Adulthood || Production and Care ||
 * Integrity vs. Despair || Late Adulthood || Wisdom ||

It is very important for teachers to know and understand the eight psychosocial stages of Erikson’s personal developmental theory. Teachers should apply these theories in the classroom by understanding the conflicts children are going through compared to the age group they are teaching. Teachers teaching younger children should incorporate language activities in the classroom knowing that the significance of language development and comprehension at this time period is critical for children. Teachers teaching children in the fourth stage should be very clear and fair with making rules with children as rules become very important for children to understand at this age. Students in stage five may be facing role confusion so teachers teaching in this stage must be positive and constructive with their students.
 * Classroom Application**

media type="youtube" key="m6pri5eUC48" height="315" width="420"
 * Video of Erikson's Eight Psychosocial Stages**

B.F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner was born on March 20, 1904 in a small town in Pennsylvania. Skinner lived an old-fashioned child life and worked hard, as well. He graduated with a bachelor’s degree in English in hopes to become a writer. In 1931 Skinner graduated with a master’s degree from Harvard in psychology and a year later graduated with a doctorate’s degree in psychology, too. Skinner later on became the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University in 1945 and then left there to teach at Harvard for three years and continued the rest of his career there. He ended up writing several books and articles during his life about behavior theory, reinforcement, and learning theory. On August 18, 1990, B.F. Skinner’s life ended when he died of leukemia, but his view as being one of the most published psychologists continues on.
 * B.F. Skinner**
 * Background**

B.F. Skinner created the theory of operant conditioning that was based off of Edward Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner added reinforcement to the law of effect and theorized behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (strengthened) and behavior that is not reinforced tends to die-out (weakened). Skinner stated operant conditioning as changing the behavior by using reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Operant conditioning is based upon the use of reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement is either positive or negative along with punishment being positive or negative. Positive and negative reinforcement are used to strengthen a behavior and positive and negative punishment are used to weaken a behavior. Example: if a father gives his son $5 every time he does his chores, the son will strengthen or increase his behavior of doing chores more often || Example: a son has to pay his father $5 every time he does not do his chores. Thus, if he does his chores he will not have to pay his father $5 (removing an unpleasant consequence of paying his dad $5), and this will increase his behavior of doing chores. || Example: a child is spanked every time he throws his toys at the wall. The child is getting an undesirable consequence of being spanked that he does not like, so this will reduce his behavior of throwing his toys at the wall. || Example: a child gets his toys taken away from him every time he throws them at the wall. The child’s pleasant stimulus he finds rewarding (his toys) is being removed from him which will reduce his behavior of throwing toys at the wall. ||
 * Theory**
 * Positive Reinforcement || Strengthens or increases a desirable behavior by being given a desirable consequence an individual finds rewarding
 * Negative reinforcement || Strengthens or increases a desirable behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence or stimulus the individual doesn’t find rewarding
 * Positive Punishment || Reduces or weakens an undesired behavior by being given an undesirable consequence the individual doesn’t find rewarding
 * Negative Punishment || Reduces or weakens an undesirable behavior by removing a pleasant or desirable stimulus an individual finds rewarding

The model Skinner uses for operant conditioning can be very powerful when used by a teacher in a classroom and can be very effective to increase or decrease the behavior of students. Teachers can use reinforcers such as giving stickers to children, telling children they did a great job, allowing extra recess time, etc. that can be used to manage children the way you would like them to perform in the classroom. Teachers can use punishment by taking away recess time, not giving children pens/pencils if they are misbehaving, sending them to the principal, etc. Teachers need to know when and how to use reinforcement and punishment in an effective way to not misuse Skinner’s influential theory.
 * Classroom Application**

[] This site was very useful because it provided a great background of Skinner and what his focus was during his career. It also provided links to different websites that went into detail about psychology and other psychologists to learn much more about this subject.
 * Websites (3)**

[] This website was very efficient in describing Skinner’s operant conditioning theory and providing examples the reader could understand better. The site also described Skinner’s experiment he did with rats that was based upon operant conditioning. There was a very interesting video on the site that gave an example of a pigeon being trained using operant conditioning and compared how the findings in this experiment are related to people and why they gamble. It was very neat to see how this process actually worked with an animal and then how it can be applied to people.

[] I really enjoyed this website because if gave examples of reinforcers for teachers to use in their classroom. It gave the different types of reinforcers that can be used in the classroom and also examples of reinforcers for different grade levels.

Abraham Maslow was born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, NY and was the oldest child of Russian Jewish immigrants. Maslow was very involved in his studies at the prestigious Boys High School in Brooklyn where he was very successful academically. Maslow started college at the College of the City of New York, transferred to Cornell for one semester, and then finally earned his master’s degree in psychology in 1931 at the University of Madison. Maslow continued on with his education at Columbia University, and after Columbia he started teaching psychology at Brooklyn College. He became good friends with Max Wertheimer and Ruth Benedict, and these two actually became the subjects of his research. In 1951 Maslow accepted an offer from Waltham, Massachusetts-based Brandeis University and was chairman of the psychology department. In 1969 Maslow moved to California and was a resident fellow at the Lauglin Institute where he ended his career. Maslow died on June 8, 1970 from a heart attack.
 * Abraham Maslow**
 * Background**

Maslow’s greatest theory is known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which is a pyramid that is divided into basic needs and growth needs. This pyramid is based on five levels and Maslow theorized an individual must succeed the lower basic needslevel in order to progress to the next higher level growth needs. He believed if people didn’t meet each of these initial needs they would not be able to move on with life successfully. The first level (or bottom) of the pyramid people need to succeed is our physiological needs. At this level people need food, water, sleep, and oxygen in order to survive. The second level is safety needs that consist of finding the need for safety and security through other people and finding a world we can feel free from harm. The third level is belonging and love that describes our need to feel loved, the desire to feel accepted, and to have a place in the world. The fourth level is esteem where people are focused on self-respect, feeling respected by others, feeling as though they have made accomplishments in their life, and strive to continue excelling towards the feeling of high self-worth. The last and final level of the pyramid to be accomplished is the need for self-actualization. Maslow believes many people may reach this level but not conquer it. This level focuses on people being completely understanding of their selves knowing who they are, where they belong in the society, and feel as though they have accomplished everything they set out in life to do.
 * Theory**

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs pyramid can be applied in the classroom by using it to understand if students are able to succeed or not. If students basic needs starting with the first level of the pyramid are not met then students’ performance in the classroom will suffer. While in the classroom students need to feel as they can succeed the second level of the pyramid and feel safe and unharmed while at school. If students don’t accomplish these first two levels of the pyramid then it is going to very hard for them to be successful in school. Teachers need to strive to provide and help students accomplish each of the levels for them to feel their maximum capability and successfulness at school.
 * Classroom Application**

[|www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/abraham-maslow.html] This website was a good website that gave Maslow’s early life information and also a biography on his professional life. It also gave a brief description about his Hierarchy of Needs theory and contribution to psychology.
 * Websites**

[] I really liked this website because it gave a simple understanding and explanation of the five tiers in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs pyramid. Some of the other websites were difficult to comprehend, but this website gave a very straightforward summary. It also gave a brief description of how this pyramid is applied in real life and some of the steps people go through in order to try and conquer the levels of the pyramid.

[] This website is awesome for teachers in understanding and applying Maslow’s theory in the classroom. It gave reasons to why this theory is very crucial for students’ success in the classroom. It also gave ways for teachers to aid students in accomplishing the levels of the pyramid such as developing relationships, how to create a safe environment for students, and letting students know you care about them. This is a great website many teachers should read to get a basic understanding of providing for student success.

Lawrence Kohlberg was born into a wealthy family in New York in the year 1927. He was finely educated in excelled prep schools during his childhood. Kohlberg decided to become a sailor with the merchant marine, and during this time he helped to sneak Jews through a British blockade in Palestine. This was Kohlberg’s realization he was very interested in moral reasoning, and after returning home from WWII he decided to study psychology at the University of Chicago. Kohlberg received his bachelor’s degree in little as one year and continued on with his education at Chicago where he finally earned his Ph.D. in 1958. While studying moral reasoning Kohlberg focused on much of Jean Piaget and John Dewey’s theories where his works were based on. He gathered much of his information from surveying students where he would give them a moral dilemma and evaluate their responses. From doing this Kohlberg developed his moral reasoning stage model. In 1973 he developed a tropic disease that disabled him very much and made him undergo depression. Kohlberg’s body was found in January of 1987 in a swamp area after he had disappeared which caused suspicion if he had taken his own life or not.
 * Lawrence Kohlberg**
 * Background**

Kohlberg’s moral developmental theory was an adaptation to Jean Piaget’s developmental theory in that Kohlberg theorized moral reasoning develops through a series of stages. This six stage model Kohlberg developed is categorized into three levels with each level having two stages.
 * Theory**
 * **Pre-Conventional Morality** ||
 * ** Stage 1 ** || ** Obedience or Punishment Orientation ** || This is the stage that all young children start at (and a few adults remain in). Rules are seen as being fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it means avoiding punishment. ||  ||
 * ** Stage 2 ** || ** Self-Interest Orientation ** || As children grow older, they begin to see that other people have their own goals and preferences and that often there is room for negotiation. Decisions are made based on the principle of "What's in it for me?" For example, an older child might reason: "If I do what mom or dad wants me to do, they will reward me. Therefore I will do it." ||^  ||
 * **Conventional Morality** ||
 * ** Stage 3 ** || ** Social Conformity Orientation ** || By adolescence, most individuals have developed to this stage. There is a sense of what "good boys" and "nice girls" do and the emphasis is on living up to social expectations and norms because of how they impact day-to-day relationships. ||  ||
 * ** Stage 4 ** || ** Law and Order Orientation ** || By the time individuals reach adulthood, they usually consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty and respecting authority. ||^  ||
 * **Post-Conventional Morality** ||
 * ** Stage 5 ** || ** Social Contract Orientation ** || At this stage, people understand that there are differing opinions out there on what is right and wrong and that laws are really just a social contract based on majority decision and inevitable compromise. People at this stage sometimes disobey rules if they find them to be inconsistent with their personal values and will also argue for certain laws to be changed if they are no longer "working". Our modern democracies are based on the reasoning of Stage 5. ||  ||
 * ** Stage 6 ** || ** Universal Ethics Orientation ** || Few people operate at this stage all the time. It is based on abstract reasoning and the ability to put oneself in other people's shoes. At this stage, people have a principled conscience and will follow universal ethical principles regardless of what the official laws and rules are. ||^  ||

Kohlberg’s theory is important to know as teachers should help children to understand and develop moral character based upon the six stages. Teachers can help children to understand the importance to sticking to rules, developing your own interests, being seen as good, etc. Also, teachers should understand why students may act or say things that they do in accordance to Kohlberg’s stages. Teachers need to create a positive and constructive learning environment for students to pass each stage. [] This website gave a very good brief biography of Kohlberg’s life. The design of the website was neat and designed for students. The website also went into detail about Kohlberg’s theory and Piaget’s theory and biography describing the expected behaviors of elementary school aged children according to the two theories.
 * Classroom Application**
 * Websites**

[] I really enjoyed this website as it gave a great chart of Kohlberg’s moral development stages. The chart gave good examples to what people are thinking in each of the stages. This chart made it very easy to depict and understand the six stages of his theory.

[] This website provided a brief description of why teachers should promote the six stages of Kohlberg’s theory in the classroom to students. It was interesting as it gave ways for teachers to provide a positive environment for students to excel in the stages. This site was useful as it also gave links to other sites about Kohlberg’s theory and applying it in the classroom.

Howard Gardner was born in Scranton Pennsylvania in 1943. Throughout his childhood Gardner was not told by his parents of his older brother, Eric, that was killed in a sleighing accident before he was born and was also not told of his Jewish identity. Gardner realized he was different from both his peers and parents as he started to untwine his family’s history and identity. He started school at Kingston, Pennsylvania and from there went to Harvard University to study law. Gardner became interested in psychology and social sciences mainly through the influence of Eric Ericson. He worked for a brief time with Jerome Bruner on the MACOS Project, and it was also during this time he began to read Claude Levi-Strauss’s and Jean Piaget’s work. He then began the doctoral program in 1966 at Harvard, became part of the Project Zero research team, and completed his PhD in 1971. He is currently a Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and a neurology professor at the Boston University School of Medicine.
 * Howard Gardner**
 * Background**

Gardner’s theory suggests that no two individuals have the same mind or the same profiles of intelligence. He believes measuring the intelligence of a person by an I.Q. test is way too limited. Gardner specifies that using different and more learning methods when teaching can bring out a person’s strengths and weaknesses by determining their preferred learning style. A way to test Gardner’s theory is by taking a multiple intelligence quiz to determine a person’s interests and learning styles. Gardner also believes the intelligences are not limited to eight, and there may be more but it is hard defining them. This model is a way to understand and teach aspects of human intelligence, learning style, personality and behavior in education and the industry.
 * Theory**


 * Eight Multiple Intelligences:**
 * **Linguistic intelligence**: "word smart"
 * **Logical-mathematical intelligence:** "number/reasoning smart"
 * **Spatial intelligence:** "picture smart"
 * **Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence:** "body smart"
 * **Musical intelligence:** "music smart"
 * **Interpersonal intelligence:** "people smart"
 * **Intrapersonal intelligence:** "self-smart"
 * **Naturalist intelligence:** "nature smart"

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is crucial for teachers to know why they need to teach in different ways to the classroom. Teachers need to realize students have different intelligences and not all students learn successfully in the same format. They need to teach in a broader range of talents and skills and need to design lessons and assignments that will help all students to learn efficiently. Teachers also need to create different assessments for students because they should not all be assessed in the same way for the students having different intelligences. Teachers can find the strengths and weaknesses of children, as well by determining their intelligence(s) and help them to become better at their weaker intelligences.
 * Classroom Application**